Home  ›  Inbred From Inbred and Inbred Again

Inbred From Inbred and Inbred Again

Written By Sunday, May 22, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Reproduction by closely related organisms

"Inbred" redirects here. For the 2011 British film, run across Inbred (film).

For reproduction past which offspring ascend from a single organism, run into Asexual reproduction.

Common fruit wing females prefer to mate with their own brothers over unrelated males.[one]

Inbreeding is the production of offspring from the mating or convenance of individuals or organisms that are closely related genetically.[2] Past analogy, the term is used in human being reproduction, but more than unremarkably refers to the genetic disorders and other consequences that may arise from expression of deleterious or recessive traits resulting from incestuous sexual relationships and consanguinity.

Inbreeding results in homozygosity, which can increase the chances of offspring being affected past deleterious or recessive traits.[three] This usually leads to at least temporarily decreased biological fitness of a population[four] [five] (called inbreeding depression), which is its power to survive and reproduce. An individual who inherits such deleterious traits is colloquially referred to as inbred. The avoidance of expression of such deleterious recessive alleles caused past inbreeding, via inbreeding avoidance mechanisms, is the main selective reason for outcrossing.[6] [7] Crossbreeding betwixt populations likewise often has positive furnishings on fettle-related traits,[8] just as well sometimes leads to negative effects known as outbreeding depression. However, increased homozygosity increases probability of fixing beneficial alleles and likewise slightly decreases probability of fixing deleterious alleles in population.[nine] Inbreeding can outcome in purging of deleterious alleles from a population through purifying pick.[10] [11] [12]

Inbreeding is a technique used in selective breeding. For case, in livestock breeding, breeders may use inbreeding when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock and for producing singled-out families inside a breed, merely will need to watch for undesirable characteristics in offspring, which tin can then be eliminated through further selective breeding or alternative. Inbreeding also helps to define the type of cistron action affecting a trait. Inbreeding is also used to reveal deleterious recessive alleles, which can then be eliminated through assortative convenance or through culling. In plant breeding, inbred lines are used as stocks for the creation of hybrid lines to brand use of the effects of heterosis. Inbreeding in plants too occurs naturally in the class of self-pollination.

Inbreeding tin significantly influence factor expression which can prevent inbreeding depression.[13]

Overview [edit]

Offspring of biologically related persons are discipline to the possible effects of inbreeding, such equally congenital birth defects. The chances of such disorders are increased when the biological parents are more closely related. This is because such pairings take a 25% probability of producing homozygous zygotes, resulting in offspring with two recessive alleles, which can produce disorders when these alleles are deleterious.[14] Because virtually recessive alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be carriers of the same deleterious allele; even so, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such deleterious allele is inherited from the common ancestor through both parents is increased dramatically. For each homozygous recessive individual formed there is an equal gamble of producing a homozygous dominant private — one completely devoid of the harmful allele. Contrary to mutual conventionalities, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes; withal, because the increased proportion of deleterious homozygotes exposes the allele to natural selection, in the long run its frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred populations. In the short term, incestuous reproduction is expected to increment the number of spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with nativity defects.[15] The advantages of inbreeding may exist the result of a trend to preserve the structures of alleles interacting at different loci that have been adapted together past a common selective history.[16]

Malformations or harmful traits can stay within a population due to a loftier homozygosity rate, and this volition cause a population to become fixed for certain traits, similar having too many bones in an surface area, like the vertebral cavalcade of wolves on Isle Royale or having cranial abnormalities, such as in Northern elephant seals, where their cranial bone length in the lower mandibular molar row has changed. Having a high homozygosity rate is problematic for a population because it will unmask recessive deleterious alleles generated by mutations, reduce heterozygote advantage, and information technology is detrimental to the survival of small, endangered animal populations.[17] When deleterious recessive alleles are unmasked due to the increased homozygosity generated past inbreeding, this can crusade inbreeding depression.[18]

There may also be other deleterious effects besides those acquired by recessive diseases. Thus, similar allowed systems may be more than vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual pick).[xix]

Inbreeding history of the population should also exist considered when discussing the variation in the severity of inbreeding depression between and within species. With persistent inbreeding, in that location is evidence that shows that inbreeding low becomes less severe. This is associated with the unmasking and elimination of severely deleterious recessive alleles. However, inbreeding low is not a temporary phenomenon because this elimination of deleterious recessive alleles will never be consummate. Eliminating slightly deleterious mutations through inbreeding under moderate choice is not as effective. Fixation of alleles about probable occurs through Muller's ratchet, when an asexual population'south genome accumulates deleterious mutations that are irreversible.[20]

Despite all its disadvantages, inbreeding can also take a diverseness of advantages, such equally ensuring a child produced from the mating contains, and volition laissez passer on, a college percentage of its mother/male parent's genetics, reducing the recombination load,[21] and allowing the expression of recessive advantageous phenotypes. Some species with a Haplodiploidy mating organization depend on the ability to produce sons to mate with as a means of ensuring a mate tin be found if no other male person is available. Information technology has been proposed that under circumstances when the advantages of inbreeding outweigh the disadvantages, preferential convenance within pocket-size groups could be promoted, potentially leading to speciation.[22]

Genetic disorders [edit]

Animation of uniparental isodisomy

Autosomal recessive disorders occur in individuals who have ii copies of an allele for a particular recessive genetic mutation.[23] Except in certain rare circumstances, such as new mutations or uniparental disomy, both parents of an individual with such a disorder volition be carriers of the gene. These carriers do non display any signs of the mutation and may be unaware that they carry the mutated gene. Since relatives share a higher proportion of their genes than exercise unrelated people, information technology is more than probable that related parents will both be carriers of the aforementioned recessive allele, and therefore their children are at a college risk of inheriting an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. The extent to which the chance increases depends on the degree of genetic relationship between the parents; the chance is greater when the parents are close relatives and lower for relationships between more afar relatives, such equally 2nd cousins, though yet greater than for the general population.[24]

Children of parent-kid or sibling-sibling unions are at an increased gamble compared to cousin-cousin unions.[25] : 3 Inbreeding may result in a greater than expected phenotypic expression of deleterious recessive alleles inside a population.[26] As a result, first-generation inbred individuals are more likely to show physical and wellness defects,[27] [28] including:

  • Reduced fertility both in litter size and sperm viability
  • Increased genetic disorders
  • Fluctuating facial disproportion
  • Lower nascence charge per unit
  • Higher infant mortality and child mortality[29]
  • Smaller developed size
  • Loss of immune organisation function
  • Increased cardiovascular risks[30]

The isolation of a small population for a period of time tin lead to inbreeding inside that population, resulting in increased genetic relatedness between breeding individuals. Inbreeding depression can also occur in a large population if individuals tend to mate with their relatives, instead of mating randomly.

Due to higher prenatal and postnatal mortality rates, some individuals in the outset generation of inbreeding will not live on to reproduce.[31] Over fourth dimension, with isolation, such as a population clogging caused past purposeful (assortative) convenance or natural environmental factors, the deleterious inherited traits are culled.[6] [vii] [32]

Island species are oft very inbred, as their isolation from the larger group on a mainland allows natural selection to work on their population. This type of isolation may result in the formation of race or even speciation, as the inbreeding first removes many deleterious genes, and permits the expression of genes that let a population to suit to an ecosystem. As the adaptation becomes more pronounced, the new species or race radiates from its entrance into the new space, or dies out if information technology cannot adapt and, nigh importantly, reproduce.[33]

The reduced genetic diverseness, for instance due to a clogging volition unavoidably increase inbreeding for the entire population. This may mean that a species may not exist able to adapt to changes in environmental conditions. Each individual will have similar immune systems, as immune systems are genetically based. When a species becomes endangered, the population may fall below a minimum whereby the forced interbreeding betwixt the remaining animals will consequence in extinction.

Natural breedings include inbreeding by necessity, and well-nigh animals merely drift when necessary. In many cases, the closest available mate is a mother, sister, grandmother, father, brother, or grandfather. In all cases, the environs presents stresses to remove from the population those individuals who cannot survive because of illness.[ citation needed ]

There was an assumption[ by whom? ] that wild populations practice not inbreed; this is not what is observed in some cases in the wild. However, in species such every bit horses, animals in wild or feral weather condition often drive off the immature of both sexes, thought to exist a machinery by which the species instinctively avoids some of the genetic consequences of inbreeding.[34] In general, many mammal species, including humanity'southward closest primate relatives, avoid close inbreeding peradventure due to the deleterious effects.[25] : 6

Examples [edit]

Although at that place are several examples of inbred populations of wildlife, the negative consequences of this inbreeding are poorly documented.[ citation needed ] In the Due south American ocean panthera leo, there was business that recent population crashes would reduce genetic diversity. Historical analysis indicated that a population expansion from just ii matrilineal lines was responsible for most of the individuals within the population. All the same, the diversity within the lines immune great variation in the gene pool that may help to protect the South American sea lion from extinction.[35]

In lions, prides are often followed by related males in bachelor groups. When the ascendant male is killed or driven off by ane of these bachelors, a father may exist replaced by his son. There is no machinery for preventing inbreeding or to ensure outcrossing. In the prides, almost lionesses are related to one another. If there is more than than ane dominant male, the grouping of alpha males are unremarkably related. Ii lines are and then being "line bred". Too, in some populations, such as the Crater lions, it is known that a population bottleneck has occurred. Researchers found far greater genetic heterozygosity than expected.[36] In fact, predators are known for low genetic variance, along with most of the height portion of the trophic levels of an ecosystem.[37] Additionally, the blastoff males of two neighboring prides tin can be from the same litter; ane brother may come to acquire leadership over another's pride, and subsequently mate with his 'nieces' or cousins. Nevertheless, killing another male's cubs, upon the takeover, allows the new selected cistron complement of the incoming alpha male person to prevail over the previous male. There are genetic assays being scheduled for lions to decide their genetic multifariousness. The preliminary studies prove results inconsistent with the outcrossing paradigm based on individual environments of the studied groups.[36]

In Central California, bounding main otters were idea to have been driven to extinction due to over hunting, until a small colony was discovered in the Point Sur region in the 1930s.[38] Since then, the population has grown and spread along the fundamental Californian coast to around two,000 individuals, a level that has remained stable for over a decade. Population growth is limited by the fact that all Californian sea otters are descended from the isolated colony, resulting in inbreeding.[39]

Cheetahs are some other example of inbreeding. Thousands of years ago, the cheetah went through a population clogging that reduced its population dramatically and so the animals that are alive today are all related to one another. A consequence from inbreeding for this species has been loftier juvenile bloodshed, depression fecundity, and poor convenance success.[40]

In a study on an island population of song sparrows, individuals that were inbred showed significantly lower survival rates than outbred individuals during a severe winter weather related population crash. These studies show that inbreeding low and ecological factors have an influence on survival.[20]

Measures [edit]

A measure of inbreeding of an private A is the probability F(A) that both alleles in one locus are derived from the same allele in an antecedent. These 2 identical alleles that are both derived from a common ancestor are said to be identical past descent. This probability F(A) is called the "coefficient of inbreeding".[41]

Another useful measure that describes the extent to which two individuals are related (say individuals A and B) is their coancestry coefficient f(A,B), which gives the probability that one randomly selected allele from A and another randomly selected allele from B are identical by descent.[42] This is also denoted as the kinship coefficient between A and B.[43]

A detail case is the self-coancestry of individual A with itself, f(A,A), which is the probability that taking one random allele from A and then, independently and with replacement, another random allele also from A, both are identical by descent. Since they can be identical by descent by sampling the aforementioned allele or by sampling both alleles that happen to be identical by descent, we take f(A,A) = one/2 + F(A)/ii.[44]

Both the inbreeding and the coancestry coefficients can be defined for specific individuals or as average population values. They can be computed from genealogies or estimated from the population size and its breeding properties, but all methods presume no selection and are limited to neutral alleles.

There are several methods to compute this percent. The 2 master means are the path method[45] [41] and the tabular method.[46] [47]

Typical coancestries between relatives are as follows:

  • Father/girl or female parent/son → 25% ( i⁄four )
  • Brother/sister → 25% ( one⁄4 )
  • Grandfather/granddaughter or grandmother/grandson → 12.5% ( i⁄8 )
  • One-half-brother/one-half-sis, Double cousins → 12.five% ( 1⁄8 )
  • Uncle/niece or aunt/nephew → 12.5% ( 1⁄8 )
  • Peachy-grandpa/corking-granddaughter or great-grandmother/slap-up-grandson → vi.25% ( 1⁄xvi )
  • Half-uncle/niece or half-aunt/nephew → half dozen.25% ( i⁄xvi )
  • First cousins → half-dozen.25% ( one⁄sixteen )

Animals [edit]

Wildlife [edit]

  • Banded mongoose females regularly mate with their fathers and brothers.[48]
  • Bed bugs: Due north Carolina State Academy found that bedbugs, in contrast to virtually other insects, tolerate incest and are able to genetically withstand the furnishings of inbreeding quite well.[49]
  • Common fruit fly females adopt to mate with their ain brothers over unrelated males.[1]
  • Cottony absorber scales: 'Information technology turns out that females in these hermaphrodite insects are not really fertilizing their eggs themselves, simply instead are having this done by a parasitic tissue that infects them at birth,' says Laura Ross of Oxford University's Department of Zoology. 'It seems that this infectious tissue derives from left-over sperm from their father, who has found a sneaky way of having more children by mating with his daughters.'[50]
  • Adactylidium: The single male person offspring mite mates with all the daughters when they are even so in the mother. The females, at present impregnated, cut holes in their female parent's trunk then that they can emerge to find new thrips eggs. The male emerges as well, but does non look for nutrient or new mates, and dies after a few hours. The females die at the age of 4 days, when their own offspring swallow them alive from the within.[51]

Domestic animals [edit]

An intensive form of inbreeding where an private S is mated to his girl D1, granddaughter D2 and so on, in gild to maximise the percentage of S's genes in the offspring. 87.5% of D3's genes would come from Due south, while D4 would receive 93.75% of their genes from Due south.[54]

Breeding in domestic animals is primarily assortative breeding (meet selective breeding). Without the sorting of individuals past trait, a breed could not be established, nor could poor genetic material be removed. Homozygosity is the case where similar or identical alleles combine to express a trait that is not otherwise expressed (recessiveness). Inbreeding exposes recessive alleles through increasing homozygosity.[55]

Breeders must avert breeding from individuals that demonstrate either homozygosity or heterozygosity for affliction causing alleles.[56] The goal of preventing the transfer of deleterious alleles may be accomplished past reproductive isolation, sterilization, or, in the extreme case, culling. Alternative is not strictly necessary if genetics are the merely issue in paw. Minor animals such as cats and dogs may be sterilized, but in the instance of large agricultural animals, such as cattle, culling is usually the only economic option.

The consequence of casual breeders who inbreed irresponsibly is discussed in the following quotation on cattle:

Meanwhile, milk product per moo-cow per lactation increased from 17,444 lbs to 25,013 lbs from 1978 to 1998 for the Holstein breed. Mean breeding values for milk of Holstein cows increased by four,829 lbs during this period.[57] High producing cows are increasingly difficult to breed and are subject to higher wellness costs than cows of lower genetic merit for product (Cassell, 2001).

Intensive selection for higher yield has increased relationships among animals within breed and increased the rate of casual inbreeding.

Many of the traits that affect profitability in crosses of modernistic dairy breeds have not been studied in designed experiments. Indeed, all crossbreeding research involving North American breeds and strains is very dated (McAllister, 2001) if it exists at all.[58]

The BBC produced two documentaries on dog inbreeding titled Pedigree Dogs Exposed and Pedigree Dogs Exposed: Three Years On that certificate the negative wellness consequences of excessive inbreeding.

Linebreeding [edit]

Linebreeding is a form of inbreeding. There is no clear stardom between the 2 terms, but linebreeding may encompass crosses between individuals and their descendants or two cousins.[54] [59] This method can be used to increase a particular fauna's contribution to the population.[54] While linebreeding is less likely to cause problems in the get-go generation than does inbreeding, over time, linebreeding can reduce the genetic variety of a population and crusade problems related to a too-pocket-size gene puddle that may include an increased prevalence of genetic disorders and inbreeding depression.[ citation needed ]

Outcrossing [edit]

Outcrossing is where two unrelated individuals are crossed to produce progeny. In outcrossing, unless in that location is verifiable genetic information, i may find that all individuals are distantly related to an aboriginal progenitor. If the trait carries throughout a population, all individuals can have this trait. This is chosen the founder effect. In the well established breeds, that are commonly bred, a large genetic pool is present. For example, in 2004, over eighteen,000 Persian cats were registered.[lx] A possibility exists for a complete outcross, if no barriers be betwixt the individuals to brood. However, it is not always the case, and a form of afar linebreeding occurs. Once more it is up to the assortative breeder to know what sort of traits, both positive and negative, exist within the variety of ane breeding. This diversity of genetic expression, inside fifty-fifty close relatives, increases the variability and diversity of viable stock.

Laboratory animals [edit]

Systematic inbreeding and maintenance of inbred strains of laboratory mice and rats is of great importance for biomedical enquiry. The inbreeding guarantees a consistent and compatible beast model for experimental purposes and enables genetic studies in congenic and knock-out animals. In order to reach a mouse strain that is considered inbred, a minimum of 20 sequential generations of sibling matings must occur. With each successive generation of breeding, homozygosity in the entire genome increases, eliminating heterozygous loci. With 20 generations of sibling matings, homozygosity is occurring at roughly 98.7% of all loci in the genome, allowing for these offspring to serve equally brute models for genetic studies.[61] The apply of inbred strains is also important for genetic studies in beast models, for example to distinguish genetic from environmental furnishings. The mice that are inbred typically show considerably lower survival rates.

Humans [edit]

Effects [edit]

Inbreeding increases homozygosity, which tin can increase the chances of the expression of deleterious recessive alleles and therefore has the potential to subtract the fettle of the offspring. With continuous inbreeding, genetic variation is lost and homozygosity is increased, enabling the expression of recessive deleterious alleles in homozygotes. The coefficient of inbreeding, or the degree of inbreeding in an individual, is an guess of the per centum of homozygous alleles in the overall genome.[63] The more biologically related the parents are, the greater the coefficient of inbreeding, since their genomes have many similarities already. This overall homozygosity becomes an event when there are deleterious recessive alleles in the gene pool of the family.[64] By pairing chromosomes of similar genomes, the chance for these recessive alleles to pair and go homozygous greatly increases, leading to offspring with autosomal recessive disorders.[64]

Inbreeding is especially problematic in small populations where the genetic variation is already limited.[65] By inbreeding, individuals are further decreasing genetic variation by increasing homozygosity in the genomes of their offspring.[66] Thus, the likelihood of deleterious recessive alleles to pair is significantly higher in a small inbreeding population than in a larger inbreeding population.[65]

The fitness consequences of consanguineous mating have been studied since their scientific recognition by Charles Darwin in 1839.[67] [68] Some of the most harmful effects known from such breeding includes its furnishings on the mortality charge per unit every bit well equally on the general health of the offspring.[69] Since the 1960s, there have been many studies to support such debilitating furnishings on the human being organism.[66] [67] [69] [lxx] [71] Specifically, inbreeding has been establish to decrease fertility as a direct result of increasing homozygosity of deleterious recessive alleles.[71] [72] Fetuses produced by inbreeding besides face a greater adventure of spontaneous abortions due to inherent complications in evolution.[73] Amongst mothers who experience stillbirths and early infant deaths, those that are inbreeding have a significantly higher chance of reaching repeated results with futurity offspring.[74] Additionally, consanguineous parents possess a high adventure of premature birth and producing underweight and undersized infants.[75] Viable inbred offspring are also probable to be inflicted with physical deformities and genetically inherited diseases.[63] Studies have confirmed an increase in several genetic disorders due to inbreeding such equally incomprehension, hearing loss, neonatal diabetes, limb malformations, disorders of sex development, schizophrenia and several others.[63] [76] Moreover, in that location is an increased risk for congenital heart disease depending on the inbreeding coefficient (Run across coefficient of inbreeding) of the offspring, with meaning risk accompanied by an F =.125 or higher.[27]

Prevalence [edit]

The general negative outlook and eschewal of inbreeding that is prevalent in the Western globe today has roots from over 2000 years ago. Specifically, written documents such every bit the Bible illustrate that there have been laws and social customs that have chosen for the abstention from inbreeding. Along with cultural taboos, parental education and awareness of inbreeding consequences have played large roles in minimizing inbreeding frequencies in areas like Europe. That being so, there are less urbanized and less populated regions across the globe that have shown continuity in the exercise of inbreeding.

The continuity of inbreeding is oft either by pick or unavoidably due to the limitations of the geographical surface area. When past choice, the charge per unit of consanguinity is highly dependent on religion and culture.[65] In the Western earth some Anabaptist groups are highly inbred considering they originate from pocket-size founder populations and until[ description needed ] today[ when? ] marriage exterior the groups is non allowed for members.[ citation needed ] Specially the Reidenbach Erstwhile Order Mennonites[77] and the Hutterites stalk from very pocket-size founder populations. The same is true for some Hasidic and Haredi Jewish groups.

Of the practicing regions, Heart Eastern and northern Africa territories prove the greatest frequencies of consanguinity. [65]

Amidst these populations with loftier levels of inbreeding, researchers accept institute several disorders prevalent among inbred offspring. In Lebanon, Saudi arabia, Egypt, and in Israel, the offspring of consanguineous relationships have an increased risk of built malformations, congenital heart defects, built hydrocephalus and neural tube defects.[65] Furthermore, among inbred children in Palestine and Lebanon, at that place is a positive association betwixt consanguinity and reported cleft lip/palate cases.[65] Historically, populations of Qatar accept engaged in consanguineous relationships of all kinds, leading to high hazard of inheriting genetic diseases. Equally of 2014, around 5% of the Qatari population suffered from hereditary hearing loss; most were descendants of a consanguineous relationship.[78]

Royalty and nobility [edit]

Inter-nobility matrimony was used as a method of forming political alliances amidst elites. These ties were often sealed just upon the birth of progeny within the arranged marriage. Thus marriage was seen as a union of lines of nobility and not every bit a contract betwixt individuals.

Royal intermarriage was often practiced among European royal families, usually for interests of state. Over time, due to the relatively limited number of potential consorts, the gene pool of many ruling families grew progressively smaller, until all European royalty was related. This also resulted in many being descended from a certain person through many lines of descent, such as the numerous European royalty and nobility descended from the British Queen Victoria or King Christian 9 of Denmark.[79] The Business firm of Habsburg was known for its intermarriages; the Habsburg lip often cited as an ill-issue. The closely related houses of Habsburg, Bourbon, Braganza and Wittelsbach also frequently engaged in first-cousin unions as well as the occasional double-cousin and uncle–niece marriages.

In ancient Egypt, regal women were believed to carry the bloodlines so information technology was advantageous for a pharaoh to marry his sister or half-sister;[lxxx] in such cases a special combination between endogamy and polygamy is found. Ordinarily, the erstwhile ruler's eldest son and daughter (who could be either siblings or half-siblings) became the new rulers. All rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty uninterruptedly from Ptolemy Iv (Ptolemy Ii married his sister but had no consequence) were married to their brothers and sisters, so as to keep the Ptolemaic blood "pure" and to strengthen the line of succession. King Tutankhamun's mother is reported to take been the half-sister to his male parent,[81] Cleopatra Seven (besides chosen Cleopatra Half-dozen) and Ptolemy Thirteen, who married and became co-rulers of ancient Egypt following their father's expiry, are the most widely known example.[82]

Come across also [edit]

  • Alvarez case
  • Coefficient of relationship
  • Consanguinity
  • Cousin matrimony
  • Cousin marriage in the Eye East
  • Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Exogamy
  • Founder effect
  • F-statistics
  • Fritzl instance
  • Genetic diversity
  • Genetic purging
  • Genetic sexual attraction
  • Heterozygote advantage
  • Identical ancestors point
  • Inbreeding depression
  • Inbreeding in fish
  • Incest
  • Incest taboo
  • Insular dwarfism
  • Intellectual inbreeding
  • Legality of incest
  • List of coupled cousins
  • Mahram
  • Outbreeding depression
  • Outcrossing
  • Proximity of blood
  • Prohibited degree of kinship
  • Selective breeding
  • Self-incompatibility in plants (how some plants avert inbreeding)

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b Loyau A, Cornuau JH, Clobert J, Danchin E (2012). "Incestuous sisters: mate preference for brothers over unrelated males in Drosophila melanogaster". PLOS 1. seven (12): e51293. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...751293L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051293. PMC3519633. PMID 23251487.
  2. ^ Inbreeding at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  3. ^ Nabulsi MM, Tamim H, Sabbagh M, Obeid MY, Yunis KA, Bitar FF (Feb 2003). "Parental consanguinity and congenital heart malformations in a developing country". American Periodical of Medical Genetics. Function A. 116A (4): 342–7. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.10020. PMID 12522788. S2CID 44576506.
  4. ^ Jiménez JA, Hughes KA, Alaks G, Graham L, Lacy RC (Oct 1994). "An experimental study of inbreeding depression in a natural habitat". Scientific discipline. 266 (5183): 271–3. Bibcode:1994Sci...266..271J. doi:x.1126/science.7939661. PMID 7939661.
  5. ^ Chen 10 (1993). "Comparison of inbreeding and outbreeding in hermaphroditic Arianta arbustorum (L.) (state snail)". Heredity. 71 (five): 456–461. doi:10.1038/hdy.1993.163.
  6. ^ a b Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (September 1985). "Genetic damage, mutation, and the development of sex". Science. 229 (4719): 1277–81. Bibcode:1985Sci...229.1277B. doi:10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363.
  7. ^ a b Michod RE. Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex. (1994) Perseus Books, ISBN 0-201-40754-10
  8. ^ Lynch M (1991). "The Genetic Interpretation of Inbreeding Depression and Outbreeding Low". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Development. Oregon: Society for the Study of Evolution. 45 (3): 622–629. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04333.x. PMID 28568822. S2CID 881556. [ page needed ]
  9. ^ Whitlock MC (June 2003). "Fixation probability and time in subdivided populations". Genetics. 164 (two): 767–79. doi:ten.1093/genetics/164.2.767. PMC1462574. PMID 12807795.
  10. ^ Tien NS, Sabelis MW, Egas Thou (March 2015). "Inbreeding depression and purging in a haplodiploid: gender-related effects". Heredity. 114 (three): 327–32. doi:ten.1038/hdy.2014.106. PMC4815584. PMID 25407077.
  11. ^ Peer Thou, Taborsky Thousand (Feb 2005). "Outbreeding low, but no inbreeding depression in haplodiploid Ambrosia beetles with regular sibling mating". Development; International Journal of Organic Development. 59 (ii): 317–23. doi:10.1554/04-128. PMID 15807418. S2CID 198156378.
  12. ^ Gulisija D, Crow JF (May 2007). "Inferring purging from pedigree information". Development; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 61 (v): 1043–51. doi:ten.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00088.x. PMID 17492959. S2CID 24302475.
  13. ^ García C, Avila V, Quesada H, Caballero A (2012). "Cistron-Expression Changes Caused past Inbreeding Protect Against Inbreeding Depression in Drosophila". Genetics. 192 (1): 161–72. doi:10.1534/genetics.112.142687. PMC3430533. PMID 22714404.
  14. ^ Livingstone FB (1969). "Genetics, Ecology, and the Origins of Incest and Exogamy". Current Anthropology. 10: 45–62. doi:10.1086/201009. S2CID 84009643.
  15. ^ Thornhill NW (1993). The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Printing. ISBN978-0-226-79854-7.
  16. ^ Shields, W. Grand. 1982. Philopatry, Inbreeding, and the Evolution of Sexual activity. Impress. 50–69.
  17. ^ Meagher S, Penn DJ, Potts WK (March 2000). "Male-male person competition magnifies inbreeding depression in wild house mice". Proceedings of the National University of Sciences of the Usa of America. 97 (7): 3324–9. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.3324M. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.seven.3324. PMC16238. PMID 10716731.
  18. ^ Swindell WR, et al. (2006). "Option and Inbreeding Low: Effects of Inbreeding Rate and Inbreeding Environment". Development. 60 (v): 1014–1022. doi:10.1554/05-493.1. PMID 16817541. S2CID 198156086.
  19. ^ Lieberman D, Tooby J, Cosmides L (April 2003). "Does morality have a biological basis? An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments relating to incest". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 270 (1517): 819–26. doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2290. PMC1691313. PMID 12737660.
  20. ^ a b Pusey A, Wolf M (May 1996). "Inbreeding avoidance in animals". Trends in Ecology & Development. 11 (5): 201–6. doi:ten.1016/0169-5347(96)10028-8. PMID 21237809.
  21. ^ Shields WM (1982). Philopatry, inbreeding, and the development of sex activity. Albany: Country University of New York Press. ISBN978-0-87395-618-5.
  22. ^ Joly Eastward (December 2011). "The existence of species rests on a metastable equilibrium between inbreeding and outbreeding. An essay on the close relationship between speciation, inbreeding and recessive mutations". Biology Direct. 6: 62. doi:x.1186/1745-6150-six-62. PMC3275546. PMID 22152499.
  23. ^ Hartl, D.L., Jones, E.West. (2000) Genetics: Assay of Genes and Genomes. Fifth Edition. Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc., pp. 105–106. ISBN 0-7637-1511-five.
  24. ^ Kingston HM (April 1989). "ABC of clinical genetics. Genetics of common disorders". BMJ. 298 (6678): 949–52. doi:x.1136/bmj.298.6678.949. PMC1836181. PMID 2497870.
  25. ^ a b Wolf AP, Durham WH, eds. (2005). Inbreeding, incest, and the incest taboo: the state of noesis at the plough. Stanford University Press. ISBN978-0-8047-5141-4.
  26. ^ Griffiths AJ, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, Gelbart WM (1999). An introduction to genetic analysis. New York: W. H. Freeman. pp. 726–727. ISBN978-0-7167-3771-one.
  27. ^ a b Bittles AH, Black ML (Jan 2010). "Evolution in health and medicine Sackler colloquium: Consanguinity, human evolution, and circuitous diseases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 Suppl 1 (suppl 1): 1779–86. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.1779B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906079106. PMC2868287. PMID 19805052.
  28. ^ Fareed M, Afzal Grand (2014). "Evidence of inbreeding depression on height, weight, and body mass index: a population-based child cohort study". American Journal of Human Biology. 26 (half dozen): 784–95. doi:x.1002/ajhb.22599. PMID 25130378. S2CID 6086127.
  29. ^ Fareed M, Kaisar Ahmad G, Azeem Anwar M, Afzal Grand (January 2017). "Impact of consanguineous marriages and degrees of inbreeding on fertility, kid bloodshed, secondary sex ratio, selection intensity, and genetic load: a cross-sectional study from Northern Republic of india". Pediatric Inquiry. 81 (1): 18–26. doi:10.1038/pr.2016.177. PMID 27632780.
  30. ^ Fareed M, Afzal M (April 2016). "Increased cardiovascular risks associated with familial inbreeding: a population-based study of adolescent cohort". Annals of Epidemiology. 26 (iv): 283–92. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2016.03.001. PMID 27084548.
  31. ^ Bittles AH, Grant JC, Shami SA (June 1993). "Consanguinity as a determinant of reproductive behaviour and mortality in Pakistan". International Periodical of Epidemiology (Submitted manuscript). 22 (iii): 463–seven. doi:10.1093/ije/22.3.463. PMID 8359962.
  32. ^ Kirkpatrick 1000, Jarne P (February 2000). "The Effects of a Bottleneck on Inbreeding Depression and the Genetic Load". The American Naturalist. 155 (two): 154–167. doi:10.1086/303312. PMID 10686158. S2CID 4375158.
  33. ^ Leck CF (1980). "Institution of New Population Centers with Changes in Migration Patterns" (PDF). Periodical of Field Ornithology. 51 (2): 168–173. JSTOR 4512538.
  34. ^ "ADVS 3910 Wild Horses Beliefs", College of Agriculture, Utah State University.
  35. ^ Freilich S, Hoelzel AR, Choudhury SR. "Genetic diversity and population genetic structure in the South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens)" (PDF). Section of Anthropology and School of Biological & Biomedical Sciences, Academy of Durham, U.K.
  36. ^ a b Gilbert DA, Packer C, Pusey AE, Stephens JC, O'Brien SJ (1991-10-01). "Analytical Deoxyribonucleic acid fingerprinting in lions: parentage, genetic diverseness, and kinship". The Journal of Heredity. 82 (5): 378–86. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111107. PMID 1940281.
  37. ^ Ramel, C (1998). "Biodiversity and intraspecific genetic variation". Pure and Applied Chemical science. 70 (xi): 2079–2084. CiteSeerX10.1.ane.484.8521. doi:x.1351/pac199870112079. S2CID 27867275.
  38. ^ Kenyon KW (August 1969). "The ocean otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean". N American Fauna. 68: 1–352. doi:ten.3996/nafa.68.0001.
  39. ^ Bodkin JL, Ballachey Be, Cronin MA, Scribner KT (December 1999). "Population Demographics and Genetic Diversity in Remnant and Translocated Populations of Sea Otters". Conservation Biology. 13 (6): 1378–85. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98124.x. S2CID 86833574.
  40. ^ Wielebnowski, Nadja (1996). "Reassessing the human relationship betwixt juvenile mortality and genetic monomorphism in captive cheetahs". Zoo Biology. 15 (iv): 353–369. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1996)15:iv<353::AID-ZOO1>iii.0.CO;ii-A.
  41. ^ a b Wright S (1922). "Coefficients of inbreeding and relationship". American Naturalist. 56 (645): 330–338. doi:10.1086/279872. S2CID 83865141.
  42. ^ Reynolds J, Weir BS, Cockerham CC (November 1983). "Estimation of the coancestry coefficient: footing for a brusk-term genetic distance". Genetics. 105 (iii): 767–79. doi:10.1093/genetics/105.3.767. PMC1202185. PMID 17246175.
  43. ^ Casas AM, Igartua E, Valles MP, Molina-Cano JL (November 1998). "Genetic diversity of barley cultivars grown in Espana, estimated by RFLP, similarity and coancestry coefficients". Institute Breeding. 117 (5): 429–35. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0523.1998.tb01968.x. hdl:10261/121301.
  44. ^ Malecot Thousand. Les Mathématiques de l'hérédité. Paris: Masson et Cie. p. 1048.
  45. ^ How to compute and inbreeding coefficient (the path method), Braque du Bourbonnais.
  46. ^ Christensen Yard. "four.v Calculation of inbreeding and human relationship, the tabular method". Genetic adding applets and other programs. Genetics pages.
  47. ^ García-Cortés LA, Martínez-Ávila JC, Toro MA (2010-05-sixteen). "Fine decomposition of the inbreeding and the coancestry coefficients by using the tabular method". Conservation Genetics. eleven (5): 1945–52. doi:x.1007/s10592-010-0084-10. S2CID 2636127.
  48. ^ a b Nichols HJ, Deceit MA, Hoffman JI, Sanderson JL (December 2014). "Bear witness for frequent incest in a cooperatively breeding mammal". Biological science Letters. 10 (12): 20140898. doi:x.1098/rsbl.2014.0898. PMC4298196. PMID 25540153.
  49. ^ "Insect Incest Produces Healthy Offspring". 8 Dec 2011.
  50. ^ Gardner A, Ross L (August 2011). "The development of hermaphroditism by an infectious male-derived cell lineage: an inclusive-fitness assay" (PDF). The American Naturalist. 178 (2): 191–201. doi:10.1086/660823. hdl:10023/5096. PMID 21750383. S2CID 15361433. Lay summary – Live Science (July 28, 2011).
  51. ^ Freeman S, Herran JC (2007). "Crumbling and other life history characters". Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.). Pearson Teaching, Inc. p. 484. ISBN978-0-thirteen-227584-2.
  52. ^ "Polycystic kidney disease | International Cat Care". icatcare.org . Retrieved 2016-07-08 .
  53. ^ "Polycystic Kidney Disease". www.vet.cornell.edu . Retrieved 2016-07-08 .
  54. ^ a b c Tave D (1999). Inbreeding and breed stock management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. p. 50. ISBN978-92-five-104340-0.
  55. ^ Bosse, Mirte; Megens, Hendrik‐January; Derks, Martijn F. L.; Cara, Ángeles Grand. R.; Groenen, Martien A. Thousand. (2019). "Deleterious alleles in the context of domestication, inbreeding, and selection". Evolutionary Applications. 12 (ane): 6–17. doi:10.1111/eva.12691. PMC6304688. PMID 30622631.
  56. ^ G2036 Alternative the Commercial Cow Herd: BIF Fact Sheet, MU Extension Archived 2016-04-16 at the Wayback Car. Extension.missouri.edu. Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
  57. ^ "Genetic Evaluation Results". Archived from the original on August 27, 2001.
  58. ^ S1008: Genetic Option and Crossbreeding to Enhance Reproduction and Survival of Dairy Cattle (S-284) Archived 2006-09-ten at the Wayback Machine. Nimss.umd.edu. Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
  59. ^ Vogt D, Swartz HA, Massey J (October 1993). "Inbreeding: Its Meaning, Uses and Effects on Farm Animals". MU Extension. University of Missouri. Archived from the original on March viii, 2012. Retrieved April 30, 2011.
  60. ^ Top True cat Breeds for 2004. Petplace.com. Retrieved on 2013-03-05.
  61. ^ Taft, Robert et al. "Know thy mouse." Science Direct. Vol. 22, No. 12, Dec. 2006, pp. 649-653. Trends in Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2006.09.010
  62. ^ Hamamy H (July 2012). "Consanguineous marriages : Preconception consultation in primary health intendance settings". Journal of Community Genetics. 3 (3): 185–92. doi:10.1007/s12687-011-0072-y. PMC3419292. PMID 22109912.
  63. ^ a b c Woodley, Michael A (2009). "Inbreeding depression and IQ in a study of 72 countries". Intelligence. 37 (3): 268–276. doi:x.1016/j.intell.2008.x.007.
  64. ^ a b Kamin, Leon J (1980). "Inbreeding low and IQ". Psychological Bulletin. 87 (iii): 469–478. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.87.three.469. PMID 7384341.
  65. ^ a b c d e f Tadmouri GO, Nair P, Obeid T, Al Ali MT, Al Khaja N, Hamamy HA (October 2009). "Consanguinity and reproductive wellness among Arabs". Reproductive Health. 6 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/1742-4755-half dozen-17. PMC2765422. PMID 19811666.
  66. ^ a b Roberts DF (November 1967). "Incest, inbreeding and mental abilities". British Medical Periodical. iv (5575): 336–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.4.5575.336. PMC1748728. PMID 6053617.
  67. ^ a b Van Den Berghe, Pierre L (2010). "Man inbreeding avoidance: Culture in nature". Behavioral and Encephalon Sciences. 6: 91–102. doi:ten.1017/S0140525X00014850. S2CID 146133244.
  68. ^ Speicher MR, Motulsky AG, Antonarakis SE, Bittles AH, eds. (2010). "Consanguinity, Genetic Migrate, and Genetic Diseases in Populations with Reduced Numbers of Founders". Vogel and Motulsky's human genetics problems and approaches (4th ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 507–528. ISBN978-iii-540-37654-five.
  69. ^ a b Ober C, Hyslop T, Hauck WW (Jan 1999). "Inbreeding effects on fertility in humans: bear witness for reproductive bounty". American Journal of Human being Genetics. 64 (i): 225–31. doi:x.1086/302198. PMC1377721. PMID 9915962.
  70. ^ Morton NE (August 1978). "Effect of inbreeding on IQ and mental retardation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the The states of America. 75 (8): 3906–8. Bibcode:1978PNAS...75.3906M. doi:10.1073/pnas.75.8.3906. PMC392897. PMID 279005.
  71. ^ a b Bittles AH, Grant JC, Sullivan SG, Hussain R (2002-01-01). "Does inbreeding lead to decreased human fertility?". Annals of Human Biological science. 29 (2): 111–30. doi:10.1080/03014460110075657. PMID 11874619. S2CID 31317976.
  72. ^ Ober C, Elias S, Kostyu DD, Hauck WW (January 1992). "Decreased fecundability in Hutterite couples sharing HLA-DR". American Journal of Human Genetics. 50 (one): 6–14. PMC1682532. PMID 1729895.
  73. ^ Diamond JM (1987). "Causes of expiry earlier birth". Nature. 329 (6139): 487–8. Bibcode:1987Natur.329..487D. doi:10.1038/329487a0. PMID 3657971. S2CID 4338257.
  74. ^ Stoltenberg C, Magnus P, Skrondal A, Lie RT (April 1999). "Consanguinity and recurrence risk of stillbirth and infant decease". American Journal of Public Health. 89 (4): 517–23. doi:10.2105/ajph.89.4.517. PMC1508879. PMID 10191794.
  75. ^ Khlat M (December 1989). "Inbreeding effects on fetal growth in Beirut, Lebanon". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. eighty (4): 481–4. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330800407. PMID 2603950.
  76. ^ Bener A, Dafeeah EE, Samson N (December 2012). "Does consanguinity increase the risk of schizophrenia? Report based on primary health care centre visits". Mental Health in Family Medicine. 9 (four): 241–8. PMC3721918. PMID 24294299.
  77. ^ Karsten-Gerhard Albertsen: The History & Life of the Reidenbach Mennonites (Thirty Fivers). Morgantown, Pennsylvania 1996, folio 443.
  78. ^ Girotto G, Mezzavilla M, Abdulhadi K, Vuckovic D, Vozzi D, Khalifa Alkowari M, Gasparini P, Badii R (2014-01-01). "Consanguinity and hereditary hearing loss in Qatar". Human being Heredity. 77 (one–4): 175–82. doi:x.1159/000360475. PMID 25060281.
  79. ^ Beeche A (2009). The Gotha: Still a Continental Regal Family, Vol. 1. Richmond, Usa: Kensington House Books. pp. 1–thirteen. ISBN978-0-9771961-7-three.
  80. ^ Seawright C. "Women in Aboriginal Egypt, Women and Law". thekeep.org.
  81. ^ Rex Tut Mysteries Solved: Was Disabled, Malarial, and Inbred
  82. ^ Bevan ER. "The House of Ptolomey". uchicago.edu.

External links [edit]

  • Dale Vogt, Helen A. Swartz and John Massey, 1993. Inbreeding: Its Meaning, Uses and Effects on Farm Animals. University of Missouri, Extension. Archived 2012-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
  • Consanguineous marriages with global map
  • Ingersoll Due east (1920). "Cross-Fertilization in Animals and in Man". Encyclopedia Americana.

girouardondritted.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding

0 Response to "Inbred From Inbred and Inbred Again"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel